Craniometry

Craniometry is the technique of measuring the bones of the skull. Craniometry was once intensively practiced in anthropology/ethnology. ==Classification== Human skulls can be classified into three main categories based on Cephalic_index:

-dolichocephalic: long and thin
-brachycephalic: short and broad
-mesocephalic: intermediate length and breadth

There exist several indices other than the cephalic index that are meant to measure certain attributes of the head, as well. The distribution of these indices were mapped by anthropologists in the first half of the 20th century. Certain patterns could be discerned in Europe. These patterns gave life to theories of population history: several historians believed they could deduce socio-economic histories of nations and ethnic relations between nations from skull shapes. == Scientific research throughout history == In 1764, Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton published a noteworthy contribution to craniometry: ''M�moire sur les differences de la situation du grand trou occipital dans l’homme et dans les animaux'' (which translates as ''Memoir on the Different Positions of the Occipital Foramen in Man and Animals''). Six years later, Pieter Camper, distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures containing an account of his craniometrical methods, and these may be fairly claimed as having laid the foundation of all subsequent work. That work has been described above as anthropological, but as the studies thus defined are very varied in extent, it is necessary to consider the subdivisions into which they naturally fall. It's believed the theory of Kozmosis (http://kozmosis.proboards19.com info can be found there)has contributed to this epidemic. In the first place, (omitting further reference to the artists), it has been explained that the measurements were first made with a view to elucidating the comparison of the skulls of men with those of other animals. This wide comparison constitutes the first subdivision of craniometric studies. It is further remarkable that among the first measurements employed angular determinations occur, and indeed the name of Camper is chiefly perpetuated in anthropological literature by the facial angle invented by that artist-anatomist. Camper's work followed the lines of 18th century racial theories, where his measurements of facial angle were used to liken the skulls of non-Europeans to those of apes. In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the literature of craniometry quickly increased in number. While it is impossible to analyse each contribution, or even record a complete list of the names of the authors, it must be added that for the purposes of far-reaching comparisons of humans to other animals, craniometric methods were used by Paul Pierre Broca in France and by T. H. Huxley in England. Broca and Huxley cultivated similar comparative racial fields of research, but to these names that of Anders Retzius of Stockholm must be added. The chief claim of Retzius to distinction rests on the merits of his system of comparing various dimensions of the skull, and of a classification based on such comparisons. The misuse of data obtained from craniometry has been compared to phrenology as a pseudoscience. The apparent scientific support of craniometric theories for racism was used to the support the racist ideologies, and ultimately genocidal policies, of the Nazi party. The uses that racist ideologues and even reputable scientists made of craniometric measurements and conclusions have been thoroughly discussed by Stephen Jay Gould in ''The Mismeasure of Man'' (1981). However, brain volume data and other craniometric data is used in mainstream science to compare modern-day animal species, and to analyze the evolution of the human species in archeology. == Racial difference in brain size == In his 1839 ''Crania Americana'', anthropologist Samuel George Morton reported that the mean cranial capacity of the skulls of Whites was 87 in³, while that of Blacks was 78 in³. Based on the measurement of 144 skulls of Native Americans, he reported an a figure of 82in³. Morton's work has been criticized by Stephen Jay Gould, who alleged in his 1981 book ''The Mismeasure of Man'' that Morton was guilty of fudging data and "overpacking" the skulls with filler. Despite Gould's retabulation of Morton's data, however, the differences in brain size among different races still persist, with the data still showing a difference of about four cubic inches between modern Caucasians and Africans. Gould writes that the differences are "trivial", but J. Philippe Rushton (1996) responds that a difference of only a single cubic inch equates to millions of neurons. In 1988, J. S. Michael remeasured a random sample of Morton's skulls and concluded that Morton had made very few errors. J. Philippe Rushton (1989) additionally reanalyzed Gould's retabulation, concluding that Morton had shown a pattern of decreasing brain size proceeding from East Asians, Europeans, and Africans. In 1873, Paul Pierre Broca found the same pattern by weighing brains at autopsy. Other historical studies showing a Black-White difference in brain size include Bean (1906), Mall, (1909), Pearl, (1934) and Vint (1934). In his controversial 1995 work ''Race, Evolution, and Behavior'', J. Philippe Rushton reported an average endocranial volume of 1,415 cm³ for "Orientals [''sic'']", 1,362 for Whites, and 1,268 for Blacks. When adjusted for average body size, the differences become more pronounced; i.e., the encephalization quotients (EQ) display greater differences than do absolute brain sizes (Jerisen, 1973, 2000; Rushton, 1991). Rushton (1991) found an EQ of 7.26 for East Asians as compared to 6.76 for Caucasians. Differences in brain size between Asians and Europeans sometimes do not appear until adjusted for body size (Rushton, 1997). In some cases Europeans averaged higher absolute brain sizes than East Asians but lower relative brain sizes when adjusted for body size (Rushton, 1994). Other studies that have shown similar patterns in average brain size include Ho et al. (1980), who measured brains at autopsy, and Beals et al. (1984), who measured approximately 20,000 skulls, finding the same East Asian → European → African pattern. Other studies have shown the same pattern in average head size, including Rushton (1992), Rushton (1994), and the National Collaborative Perinatal Project (described by Broman, Nichols, Shaugnessy, & Kennedy, 1987) which collected anthropometric data, including head measurements and IQ, on approximately 35,000 children from 1959 to 1974 (although the study began with over 50,000 subjects, some attrition occured as with many longitudinal studies). Analyses of the data found the East Asian → White → Black pattern in head size and IQ at 4 months, 1 year, and 7 years of age. East Asian brains have greater width and breadth (i.e., are more brachycephalic) and are more spherically shaped than those of Europeans, which are more so than those of Africans. Africans tend to have longer and narrower (more dolichocephalic) brains (Beals et al., 1984; McShane, 1983; Rushton & Ankney, 2000). Beals et al. proposed that the longer and narrower African brain evolved for better heat dissipation in a warmer climate, while East Asians and Europeans evolved comparatively shorter and wider brains for thermoregulatory purposes in a cooler climate. Rushton & Ankney (2000, pp. 612-613) question the thermoregulatory hypothesis, instead positing that brachycephalization and sphericalization allow for greater brain size. At the same time, Rushton and Ankney believe it is possible that the need to thermoregulate in Africa may have selected against increasing brain size. Rushton and Ankney (2000) found a pattern of descending prognathism, glabella size, postorbital constriction, and temporal fossae in African, European, and East Asian skulls and propose that these structures shrank over the course of evolution to allow greater brain size. Rushton has been accused by other researchers of misrepresenting the data. When they have reanalyzed the data, Zack Cernovsky et al. argue that many of Rushton's claims are incorrect. The American Psychological Association's Task Force Report on Intelligence reports that with respect to "racial differences in the mean measured sizes of skulls and brains (with East Asians having the largest, followed by Whites and then Blacks)...there is indeed a small overall trend" (Neisser, 1997, p. 80). Cranial vault size and shape have changed greatly during the last 150 years in the US. These changes must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault. The explanation for these changes may be related to the Flynn effect. == See also == * Race * Anthropometry * Samuel George Morton History of neuroscience Race and intelligence controversy

Craniometry

I've tried to boil down the racist and pseudoscientific 1911-worldview of the original article, leaving a description of the history of craniometry behind. -- User:The Anome 18:08, 23 Aug 2004 (UTC) This now needs a thorough copyedit and fact check. -- User:The Anome 18:29, 23 Aug 2004 (UTC) == Clean-up == I've altered the sentence ''Certain patterns could be discerned in Europe, which gave life to theories of population history'' (which, according to user 68.119.151.169 ''makes no sense'') to ''Certain patterns could be discerned in Europe. These patterns gave life to theories of population history: several historians believed they could deduce socio-economic histories of nations and ethnic relations between nations from skull shapes.'' However, I'm not fully happy with this. Does anyone have any improvements in mind? User:Aecis 17:04, 20 May 2005 (UTC)

See other meanings of words starting from letter:

C

CA | CB | CD | CE | CF | CG | CH | CI | CJ | CK | CL | CM | CN | CO | CP | CR | CS | CT | CU | CW | CX | CY | CZ |

Words begining with Craniometry:

Craniometry
Craniometry